Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. It belongs alongside logic and grammar in the Trivium, as the study and practice of using language to persuade an audience. Logic, of course, is about using language in a rational manner so as to justify various propositions. Grammar, of course, is about using language in a coherent and meaningful manner to form and put together words, sentences, paragraphs, etc.
“That’s just rhetoric,” so it is often said! We dismiss it. “Rhetoric” is a pejorative.
Think about its traditional meaning, however. Rhetoric developed out of legal and political disputes in the ancient world. True, we get the word “sophistry” out of the abusers of rhetoric; but no less of an authority than Aristotle himself, surely no fan of the sophists, developed a treatise on the subject. It was about how to argue well and convincingly. Good rhetoric helps us reach our audience.
It’s a skill we all need. Any skill requires practice. And practice requires some knowledge.
Five Rhetorical Skills…
1. Discovery – What do I want to write or say?
2. Arrangement – How should I organize my essay or presentation?
3. Style – What’s the best vocabulary, syntax, and dialect for my audience?
4. Memorization – What should I memorize if I’m about to give a speech?
5. Delivery – How am I to modulate my voice or body language in a speech?
In the treatise Rhetoric, Aristotle lectured on the nature of “discovery” in books I and II. Later he lectured on “arrangement” and “style” in book III.
Five Parts of a Good Speech…
1. Prologue – that is, introducing the speaker
2. Statement of Thesis – that is, stating the proposition to be argued for
3. Argument – that is, providing justification for the thesis
4. Refutation – that is, disproving any opponent of the thesis
5. Conclusion – that is, summarizing and ending
That’s good advice for a thesis-driven essay, not only a speech. What’s most important, according to Aristotle, is to have a thesis and to argue for it.
Logic is, in that sense, paramount.
In the context of rhetoric, “logos” is just another word for logic. It concerns rational appeal. Premises are given. Inferences are drawn to reach the conclusion. We appeal to the audience’s intelligence.
There’s also “ethos” and “pathos.” These are two further components of persuasion.
Now, ethos is not primarily about morality. It rather refers to the speaker or writer himself. We appeal to the audience’s judgement about us. We must convince them that we are competent. Being a virtuous person is surely not enough. In order for an audience to take us seriously, we need to display our skills or expertise.
Finally, pathos is an emotional appeal. While logos appeals to the intellect, pathos appeals to the passions and will. By saying things, or writing things, in a certain way, often we can get an emotional reaction from our audience. For example, we can influence them to desire a good thing. That’s what a good salesman does.
Techniques of rhetoric are skills to develop. They take a lot of work. I’m almost half-way competent in writing, though still have little competence as a speaker. We learn firstly by study. There are many resources on rhetoric, both online and offline. Much can be said about the theory of rhetoric. (And there’s always so much more to learn!) Nevertheless, these are ultimately practical skills; and so, we need to learn them by doing — and by watching and reading good examples. Find skilled people in the art of rhetoric and discern what works.
Aristotle is always a good way to start. Here’s a free way to read Rhetoric online.